1. Definition of Conflict
Conflict is generally defined as a disagreement or incompatibility between individuals or groups arising from differences in needs, values, goals, or perceptions (Deutsch, 1973; Rahim, 2011). In academic settings, conflict often manifests when individuals or teams perceive that their interests or ideologies are being challenged or obstructed.
According to Thomas (1992), conflict is "the process which begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about."
Conflict is a state of discord or disagreement arising from differences in values, needs, goals, or interests between individuals or groups (Deutsch, 1973). In an academic setting, particularly within departments such as Physics in secondary or tertiary institutions, conflict may emerge due to competing priorities (e.g., teaching vs. research), resource allocation (e.g., lab time, equipment), or interpersonal tensions among colleagues or students.
In educational psychology, conflict is considered a normal and sometimes constructive element of institutional dynamics (Johnson & Johnson, 1995). It becomes dysfunctional when it escalates and impedes performance, collaboration, or well-being.
Lewis Coser (1956) – Sociology
“Conflict is a struggle over values and claims to scarce status, power and resources in which the aims of the opponents are to neutralize, injure or eliminate their rivals.”
— Coser, L. A. (1956). The Functions of Social Conflict.
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Coser emphasized the social function of conflict in maintaining group boundaries and promoting social change.
Morton Deutsch (1973) – Social Psychology
“Conflict exists whenever incompatible activities occur; one party is interfering, obstructing, or in some way making another party's actions less effective.”
— Deutsch, M. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict.
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Deutsch sees conflict as arising from incompatibility and focuses on interpersonal and group dynamics.
Kenneth Thomas (1976) – Organizational Behavior
“Conflict is the process that begins when one party perceives that another has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about.”
— Thomas, K. W. (1976). Conflict and conflict management.
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Thomas introduces the perception aspect of conflict, and his model forms the basis of the Thomas-Kilmann Conflict Mode Instrument.
Rahim, M. Afzalur (1983) – Organizational Conflict
“Conflict is an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social entities.”
— Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict.
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Rahim focuses on the interpersonal and organizational aspects of conflict.
Kurt Lewin (1948) – Psychology
“Conflict is the simultaneous occurrence of two or more mutually antagonistic impulses or motives.”
— Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving Social Conflicts.
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Lewin sees conflict as primarily intrapersonal, often involving opposing desires or motivations.
Barbara Gray (1989) – Environmental and Organizational Conflict
“Conflict is a process of social interaction involving a struggle over claims to resources, power, and status, beliefs, and other preferences and desires.”
— Gray, B. (1989). Collaborating: Finding Common Ground for Multiparty Problems.
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Gray highlights the social construction and interactive nature of conflict.
Mary Parker Follett (1925) – Management
“Conflict is not necessarily a wasteful outbreak of incompatibilities but a normal process by which socially valuable differences register themselves for the enrichment of all concerned.”
— Follett, M. P. (1925). Constructive Conflict.
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Follett was among the first to argue that conflict can be constructive, not merely destructive.
Stephen P. Robbins (1998) – Organizational Behavior
“Conflict is a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about.”
— Robbins, S. P. (1998). Organizational Behavior.
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Robbins' definition is widely used in business and management and focuses on perceived interference.
Dean G. Pruitt & Peter J. Carnevale (1993) – Negotiation Theory
“Conflict is perceived divergence of interest, or a belief that the parties’ current aspirations cannot be achieved simultaneously.”
— Pruitt, D. G., & Carnevale, P. J. (1993). Negotiation in Social Conflict.
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These scholars underscore the perceived incompatibility in interests, crucial in negotiation contexts.
John Burton (1990) – Conflict Resolution
“Conflict occurs when deeply held human needs—such as identity, security, and recognition—are denied.”
— Burton, J. (1990). Conflict: Resolution and Prevention.
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Burton’s definition is human-needs-based, often used in peace studies and international relations.
| Author | Discipline | Key Feature of Conflict |
|---|---|---|
| Coser | Sociology | Struggle for power/status |
| Deutsch | Psychology | Incompatible activities |
| Thomas | Organizational Behavior | Perceived negative impact |
| Rahim | Organizational Conflict | Interaction & incompatibility |
| Lewin | Psychology | Intrapersonal motives |
| Gray | Management | Social interaction & claims |
| Follett | Management | Constructive potential |
| Robbins | Organizational Behavior | Perceived threat to concerns |
| Pruitt & Carnevale | Negotiation | Diverging interests |
| Burton | Peace Studies | Denial of human needs |
2. How Conflict Arises ?
Conflict can arise in educational institutions due to several factors:
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Communication Breakdown: Misunderstandings, lack of clear information, or misinterpretations.
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Differences in Goals and Expectations: Teachers may have different priorities (e.g., student-centered learning vs. syllabus coverage).
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Resource Allocation: Limited time, lab equipment, or classroom space.
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Personality Clashes: Differences in temperament or values among staff.
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Power and Authority Disputes: Especially in hierarchical structures such as departments or school administration.
Example (School Physics Department):
In a high school physics department, conflict may arise between two teachers when one wants to adopt project-based learning to improve conceptual understanding, while another insists on traditional lecture methods to prepare students for exams. The disagreement intensifies when both teachers request the same time slots for lab use, leading to disputes over resource allocation and teaching philosophy.
Causes of Conflict in a School Physics Department
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Resource Constraints: Limited lab equipment can lead to scheduling clashes among teachers.
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Curriculum Changes: Differing opinions on syllabus priorities (e.g., whether to emphasize quantum physics or mechanics) can create friction.
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Teaching Styles: Disparities in pedagogical approaches (e.g., traditional lectures vs. inquiry-based learning) may lead to disagreement.
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Student Behaviour: Disruptive classroom dynamics or group project disputes.
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Assessment Standards: Conflicts may arise regarding grading policies or performance expectations in practical experiments.
3. Four Levels of Conflict : Types of Conflict
According to Rahim (2002) and Whetten & Cameron (2011) , conflict can be categorized as:
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Intrapersonal – Within an individual (e.g., a Physics teacher feeling torn between administrative duties and research commitments).
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Interpersonal – Between individuals (e.g., a disagreement between two Physics teachers over laboratory scheduling).
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Intragroup – Within a group (e.g., conflict among students working on a group Physics project).
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Intergroup – Between groups (e.g., between the Physics department and administration over budget cuts).
a. Intrapersonal Conflict
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Definition: Conflict that occurs within an individual.
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Cause: Internal struggle due to competing demands, roles, or goals.
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Example: A physics teacher is torn between completing the curriculum and giving students time for inquiry-based learning. The teacher feels conflicted about sacrificing conceptual depth for exam readiness.
b. Interpersonal Conflict
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Definition: Conflict between two or more individuals.
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Cause: Personality clashes, communication issues, or differing values.
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Example: Two teachers in the physics department disagree on how to grade practical work. One prefers rigid rubrics, while the other allows flexibility.
c. Intragroup Conflict
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Definition: Conflict within a team or department.
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Cause: Disagreements on task roles, strategies, or group norms.
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Example: In a departmental meeting, members of the physics department cannot agree on how to divide responsibilities for the annual science fair, leading to internal tension and frustration.
d. Intergroup Conflict
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Definition: Conflict between two or more departments or groups.
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Cause: Competition for resources, lack of collaboration, or conflicting departmental goals.
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Example: The physics department and the IT department disagree on who should manage and schedule the shared laboratory space. The IT team argues for tech-based experiments, while the physics team insists on classical experiments needing the same space.
4. Importance of Conflict Management
Effective conflict management in educational settings enhances collaboration, professional respect, and student outcomes. It aligns with transformational leadership practices, where leaders proactively mediate disputes and foster a collegial culture (Leithwood & Jantzi, 2005).
5. Conclusion
Understanding conflict in educational settings, especially at different levels, allows school leaders and teachers to address the root causes and promote constructive dialogue. In physics departments, where collaboration is key for laboratory access, curriculum planning, and innovation, it is essential to recognize conflict early and manage it effectively using established conflict resolution frameworks.
References
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Deutsch, M. (1973). The Resolution of Conflict: Constructive and Destructive Processes. Yale University Press.
Fisher, R., Ury, W., & Patton, B. (1991). Getting to Yes: Negotiating Agreement Without Giving In. Penguin.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1995). Creative Controversy: Intellectual Challenge in the Classroom. Interaction Book Company.
- Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2005). Transformational Leadership. In B. Davies (Ed.), The Essentials of School Leadership. Sage
Rahim, M. A. (2002). Toward a Theory of Managing Organizational Conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 13(3), 206–235.
- Rahim, M. A. (2011). Managing Conflict in Organizations. Transaction Publishers.
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Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and conflict management. In J. W. Newstrom & K. Davis (Eds.), Organizational Behavior: Human Behavior at Work (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
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Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (2011). Developing Management Skills (8th ed.). Pearson Education.